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Bytecode

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Portable code" and "P-code" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="Software_portability" title="Software portability">software portability</a> and <a href="P-Code_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="P-Code (disambiguation)">P-Code (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">Program execution</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

General concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<li><a href="Translator_(computing)" title="Translator (computing)">Translation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">Compiler</a></li>

<li><a href="Compile_time" title="Compile time">Compile time</a></li>

<li><a href="Optimizing_compiler" title="Optimizing compiler">Optimizing compiler</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Linker_(computing)" title="Linker (computing)"> Linking</a></li>

<li><a href="Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">Execution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Runtime_system" title="Runtime system">Runtime system</a></li>

<li><a href="Executable" title="Executable">Executable</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Intermediate_representation" title="Intermediate representation">Intermediate representation</a> (IR)</li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Types of code</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Source_code" title="Source code">Source code</a></li>

<li><a href="Object_code" title="Object code">Object code</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">Machine code</a></li>

<li><a href="Microcode" title="Microcode">Microcode</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Compilation strategies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Ahead-of-time_compilation" title="Ahead-of-time compilation">Ahead-of-time</a> (AOT)</li>

<li><a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">Just-in-time</a> (JIT)

<ul><li><a href="Tracing_just-in-time_compilation" title="Tracing just-in-time compilation">Tracing just-in-time</a></li>

<li><a href="Compile_and_go_system" title="Compile and go system">Compile and go system</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Precompilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Precompilation">Precompilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Source-to-source_compiler" title="Source-to-source compiler">Transcompilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_recompilation" title="Dynamic recompilation">Recompilation</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Notable runtimes</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Android_Runtime" title="Android Runtime">Android Runtime</a> (ART)</li>

<li><a href="BEAM_(Erlang_virtual_machine)" title="BEAM (Erlang virtual machine)">BEAM</a> (Erlang)</li>

<li><a href="Common_Language_Runtime" title="Common Language Runtime">Common Language Runtime</a> (CLR) and <a href="Mono_(software)#Code_Execution_Engine" title="Mono (software)">Mono</a></li>

<li><a href="CPython" title="CPython">CPython</a> and <a href="PyPy" title="PyPy">PyPy</a></li>

<li><a href="Crt0" title="Crt0">crt0</a> (<a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> target-specific initializer)</li>

<li><a href="Java_virtual_machine" title="Java virtual machine">Java virtual machine</a> (JVM)</li>

<li><a href="LuaJIT" title="LuaJIT">LuaJIT</a></li>

<li><a href="Objective-C" title="Objective-C">Objective-C</a> and <a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a>'s</li>

<li><a href="Zend_Engine" title="Zend Engine">Zend Engine</a> (PHP)</li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Notable compilers & toolchains</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GNU Compiler Collection</a> (GCC)</li>

<li><a href="LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a> and <a href="Clang" title="Clang">Clang</a></li>

<li><a href="Glasgow_Haskell_Compiler" title="Glasgow Haskell Compiler">Glasgow Haskell Compiler</a> (GHC)</li></ul></td>

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Bytecode (also called portable code or p-code) is a form of <a href="Instruction_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction set">instruction set</a> designed for efficient execution by a software <a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>. Unlike <a href="Human-readable_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Human-readable code">human-readable</a><a href="#cite_note-Dynamic_Machine_Code-1">[1]</a> <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a>, bytecodes are compact numeric codes, constants, and references (normally numeric addresses) that encode the result of <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> parsing and performing <a href="Semantic_analysis_(compilers)" title="Semantic analysis (compilers)">semantic analysis</a> of things like type, scope, and nesting depths of program objects.

The name bytecode stems from instruction sets that have one-<a href="Byte" title="Byte">byte</a> <a href="Opcode" title="Opcode">opcodes</a> followed by optional parameters. <a href="Intermediate_representation" title="Intermediate representation">Intermediate representations</a> such as bytecode may be output by <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> implementations to ease <a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpretation</a>, or it may be used to reduce hardware and <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> dependence by allowing the same code to run <a href="Cross-platform" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-platform">cross-platform</a>, on different devices. Bytecode may often be either directly executed on a <a href="Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">virtual machine</a> (a <a href="P-code_machine" title="P-code machine">p-code machine</a>, i.e., interpreter), or it may be further compiled into <a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a> for better performance.

Since bytecode instructions are processed by software, they may be arbitrarily complex, but are nonetheless often akin to traditional hardware instructions: virtual <a href="Stack_machine" title="Stack machine">stack machines</a> are the most common, but virtual <a href="Register_machine" title="Register machine">register machines</a> have been built also.<a href="#cite_note-Jucs_Lua-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dalvik-3">[3]</a> Different parts may often be stored in separate files, similar to <a href="Object_file" title="Object file">object modules</a>, but dynamically loaded during execution.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Execution">Execution</h2></div>

A bytecode program may be executed by parsing and directly executing the instructions, one at a time. This kind of bytecode interpreter is very portable. Some systems, called dynamic translators, or <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time</a> (JIT) compilers, translate bytecode into <a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a> as necessary at <a href="Run_time_(program_lifecycle_phase)" class="mw-redirect" title="Run time (program lifecycle phase)">runtime</a>. This makes the virtual machine hardware-specific but does not lose the portability of the bytecode. For example, <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and <a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a> code is typically stored in bytecode format, which is typically then JIT compiled to translate the bytecode to machine code before execution. This introduces a delay before a program is run, when the bytecode is compiled to native machine code, but improves execution speed considerably compared to interpreting source code directly, normally by around an order of magnitude (10x).<a href="#cite_note-Byte_Machine-4">[4]</a>

Because of its performance advantage, today many language implementations execute a program in two phases, first compiling the source code into bytecode, and then passing the bytecode to the virtual machine. There are bytecode based virtual machines of this sort for <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="Raku_(programming_language)" title="Raku (programming language)">Raku</a>, <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[a]</a> <a href="Tcl" title="Tcl">Tcl</a>, <a href="AWK" title="AWK">mawk</a> and <a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a> (however, Forth is seldom compiled via bytecodes in this way, and its virtual machine is more generic instead). The implementation of <a href="Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a> and <a href="Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a> 1.8 instead work by walking an <a href="Abstract_syntax_tree" title="Abstract syntax tree">abstract syntax tree</a> representation derived from the source code.

More recently, the authors of <a href="V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a><a href="#cite_note-Dynamic_Machine_Code-1">[1]</a> and <a href="Dart_(programming_language)" title="Dart (programming language)">Dart</a><a href="#cite_note-Loitsch_Bytecode-8">[7]</a> have challenged the notion that intermediate bytecode is needed for fast and efficient VM implementation. Both of these language implementations currently do direct JIT compiling from source code to machine code with no bytecode intermediary.<a href="#cite_note-Javascript-9">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="ActionScript" title="ActionScript">ActionScript</a> executes in the ActionScript Virtual Machine (AVM), which is part of Flash Player and <a href="Adobe_AIR" title="Adobe AIR">AIR</a>. ActionScript code is typically transformed into bytecode format by a <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a>. Examples of compilers include one built into Adobe Flash Professional and one built into Adobe Flash Builder and available in the <a href="Apache_Flex" title="Apache Flex">Adobe Flex SDK</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Adobe_Flash" title="Adobe Flash">Adobe Flash</a> objects</li>

<li>BANCStar, originally bytecode for an interface-building tool but used also as a language</li>

<li><a href="Berkeley_Packet_Filter" title="Berkeley Packet Filter">Berkeley Packet Filter</a></li>

<li>Berkeley Pascal<a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a></li>

<li><a href="Byte_Code_Engineering_Library" title="Byte Code Engineering Library">Byte Code Engineering Library</a></li>

<li>C to <a href="Java_virtual_machine" title="Java virtual machine">Java virtual machine</a> compilers</li>

<li><a href="CLISP" title="CLISP">CLISP</a> implementation of <a href="Common_Lisp" title="Common Lisp">Common Lisp</a> used to compile only to bytecode for many years; however, now it also supports compiling to native code with the help of <a href="GNU_lightning" title="GNU lightning">GNU lightning</a></li>

<li><a href="CMUCL" class="mw-redirect" title="CMUCL">CMUCL</a> and Scieneer Common Lisp implementations of <a href="Common_Lisp" title="Common Lisp">Common Lisp</a> can compile either to native code or to bytecode, which is far more compact</li>

<li><a href="Common_Intermediate_Language" title="Common Intermediate Language">Common Intermediate Language</a> executed by <a href="Common_Language_Runtime" title="Common Language Runtime">Common Language Runtime</a>, used by <a href=".NET" title=".NET">.NET</a> languages such as <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a></li>

<li><a href="Dalvik_(software)" title="Dalvik (software)">Dalvik</a> bytecode, designed for the <a href="Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> platform, is executed by the <a href="Dalvik_(software)" title="Dalvik (software)">Dalvik virtual machine</a></li>

<li>Dis bytecode, designed for the <a href="Inferno_(operating_system)" title="Inferno (operating system)">Inferno (operating system)</a>, is executed by the <a href="Dis_virtual_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Dis virtual machine">Dis virtual machine</a></li>

<li><a href="EiffelStudio" title="EiffelStudio">EiffelStudio</a> for the <a href="Eiffel_(programming_language)" title="Eiffel (programming language)">Eiffel</a> programming language</li>

<li>EM, the <a href="Amsterdam_Compiler_Kit" title="Amsterdam Compiler Kit">Amsterdam Compiler Kit</a> virtual machine used as an intermediate compiling language and as a modern bytecode language</li>

<li><a href="Emacs" title="Emacs">Emacs</a> is a text editor with most of its functions implemented by <a href="Emacs_Lisp" title="Emacs Lisp">Emacs Lisp</a>, its built-in dialect of <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>. These features are compiled into bytecode. This architecture allows users to customize the editor with a high level language, which after compiling into bytecode yields reasonable performance.</li>

<li><a href="Embeddable_Common_Lisp" title="Embeddable Common Lisp">Embeddable Common Lisp</a> implementation of <a href="Common_Lisp" title="Common Lisp">Common Lisp</a> can compile to bytecode or C code</li>

<li><a href="Common_Lisp" title="Common Lisp">Common Lisp</a> provides a <code>disassemble</code> function<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a> which prints to the standard output the underlying code of a specified function. The result is implementation-dependent and may or may not resolve to bytecode. Its inspection can be utilized for debugging and optimization purposes.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> <a href="Steel_Bank_Common_Lisp" title="Steel Bank Common Lisp">Steel Bank Common Lisp</a>, for instance, produces:</li></ul>

<dl><dd><div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-lisp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>(disassemble '(lambda (x) (print x)))

; disassembly for (LAMBDA (X))

; 2436F6DF: 850500000F22 TEST EAX, [#x220F0000]  ; no-arg-parsing entry point

; E5: 8BD6 MOV EDX, ESI

; E7: 8B05A8F63624 MOV EAX, [#x2436F6A8]  ; #<FDEFINITION object for PRINT>

; ED: B904000000 MOV ECX, 4

; F2: FF7504 PUSH DWORD PTR [EBP+4]

; F5: FF6005 JMP DWORD PTR [EAX+5]

; F8: CC0A BREAK 10  ; error trap

; FA: 02 BYTE #X02

; FB: 18 BYTE #X18  ; INVALID-ARG-COUNT-ERROR

; FC: 4F BYTE #X4F  ; ECX

</pre></div></dd></dl>

<ul><li>Ericsson implementation of <a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a> uses BEAM bytecodes</li>

<li><a href="Ethereum" title="Ethereum">Ethereum</a>'s Virtual Machine (EVM) is the runtime environment, using its own bytecode, for transaction execution in Ethereum (smart contracts).</li>

<li><a href="Icon_(programming_language)" title="Icon (programming language)">Icon</a><a href="#cite_note-Arizona_Icom-13">[12]</a> and <a href="Unicon_(programming_language)" title="Unicon (programming language)">Unicon</a><a href="#cite_note-Icon_Unicon-14">[13]</a> programming languages</li>

<li><a href="Infocom" title="Infocom">Infocom</a> used the <a href="Z-machine" title="Z-machine">Z-machine</a> to make its software applications more portable</li>

<li><a href="Java_bytecode" title="Java bytecode">Java bytecode</a>, which is executed by the <a href="Java_virtual_machine" title="Java virtual machine">Java virtual machine</a>

<li>Javassist</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Keiko_bytecode" class="mw-redirect" title="Keiko bytecode">Keiko bytecode</a> used by the <a href="Oberon-2" title="Oberon-2">Oberon-2</a> programming language to make it and the <a href="Oberon_operating_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Oberon operating system">Oberon operating system</a> more portable.</li>

<li><a href="KEYB_(command)" class="mw-redirect" title="KEYB (command)">KEYB</a>, the <a href="MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a>/<a href="PC_DOS" class="mw-redirect" title="PC DOS">PC DOS</a> keyboard driver with its resource file <a href="KEYBOARD.SYS" class="mw-redirect" title="KEYBOARD.SYS">KEYBOARD.SYS</a> containing layout information and short <a href="P-code_machine" title="P-code machine">p-code</a> sequences executed by an interpreter inside the resident driver.<a href="#cite_note-Paul_2001_KEYBOARD-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mendelson_2001_KEYBOARD-16">[15]</a></li>

<li>LSL, a scripting language used in virtual worlds compiles into bytecode running on a virtual machine. Second Life has the original Mono version, Inworldz developed the Phlox version.</li>

<li><a href="Lua_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lua (programming language)">Lua</a> language uses a register-based bytecode virtual machine</li>

<li>m-code of the <a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a> language<a href="#cite_note-Patent_6973644-17">[16]</a></li>

<li><a href="Malbolge" title="Malbolge">Malbolge</a> is an <a href="Esoteric_programming_language" title="Esoteric programming language">esoteric</a> <a href="Machine_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine language">machine language</a> for a ternary virtual machine.</li>

<li><a href="P-code_machine#Microsoft_P-code" title="P-code machine">Microsoft P-code</a> used in <a href="Visual_C%2B%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual C++">Visual C++</a> and <a href="Visual_Basic_(classic)" title="Visual Basic (classic)">Visual Basic</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiplan" title="Multiplan">Multiplan</a><a href="#cite_note-Multiplan-18">[17]</a></li>

<li><a href="O-code" class="mw-redirect" title="O-code">O-code</a> of the <a href="BCPL" title="BCPL">BCPL</a> programming language</li>

<li><a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a> language optionally compiles to a compact bytecode form</li>

<li><a href="P-code_machine" title="P-code machine">p-code</a> of <a href="UCSD_Pascal" title="UCSD Pascal">UCSD Pascal</a> implementation of the <a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a> language</li>

<li><a href="Parrot_virtual_machine" title="Parrot virtual machine">Parrot virtual machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Pick_operating_system" title="Pick operating system">Pick BASIC</a> also referred to as Data BASIC or <a href="MultiValue" class="mw-redirect" title="MultiValue">MultiValue BASIC</a></li>

<li>The <a href="R_(programming_language)" title="R (programming language)">R environment for statistical computing</a> offers a bytecode compiler through the compiler package, now standard with R version 2.13.0. It is possible to compile this version of R so that the base and recommended packages exploit this.<a href="#cite_note-cran_r-19">[18]</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyramid_2000" title="Pyramid 2000">Pyramid 2000</a> adventure game</li>

<li><a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a> scripts are being compiled on execution to Python's bytecode language, and the compiled files (.pyc) are cached inside the script's folder</li></ul>

<dl><dd>Compiled code can be analysed and investigated using a built-in tool for debugging the low-level bytecode. The tool can be initialized from the shell, for example:</dd>

<dd><div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-pycon mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>>>> import dis # "dis" - Disassembler of Python byte code into mnemonics.

>>> dis.dis('print("Hello, World!")')

1 0 LOAD_NAME 0 (print)

2 LOAD_CONST 0 ('Hello, World!')

4 CALL_FUNCTION 1

6 RETURN_VALUE

</pre></div></dd></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Scheme_48" title="Scheme 48">Scheme 48</a> implementation of Scheme using bytecode interpreter</li>

<li>Bytecodes of many implementations of the <a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a> language</li>

<li>The <a href="Parallax_Propeller#Built_in_Spin_bytecode_interpreter" title="Parallax Propeller">Spin interpreter</a> built into the <a href="Parallax%2C_Inc._(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallax, Inc. (company)">Parallax</a> Propeller <a href="Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontroller</a></li>

<li>The <a href="SQLite" title="SQLite">SQLite</a> database engine translates SQL statements into a bespoke byte-code format.<a href="#cite_note-SQLite-20">[19]</a></li>

<li>Apple <a href="SWEET16" title="SWEET16">SWEET16</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_i#TIMI" title="IBM i">TIMI</a> is used by compilers on the <a href="IBM_i" title="IBM i">IBM i</a> platform.</li>

<li><a href="Tiny_BASIC#Implementation_in_a_virtual_machine" title="Tiny BASIC">Tiny BASIC</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_FoxPro" title="Visual FoxPro">Visual FoxPro</a> compiles to bytecode</li>

<li><a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a></li>

<li><a href="YARV" title="YARV">YARV</a> and <a href="Rubinius" title="Rubinius">Rubinius</a> for <a href="Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a></li>

<li><a href="ZCODE" class="mw-redirect" title="ZCODE">ZCODE</a></li>

<li><a href="Zend_Engine" title="Zend Engine">Zend Engine</a> opcodes for <a href="PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a></li></ul>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bytecode" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:bytecode">bytecode</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a href="Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li>

<li><a href="Intermediate_representation" title="Intermediate representation">Intermediate representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Runtime_system" title="Runtime system">Runtime system</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> PHP has <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a> in PHP 8,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and before while not on in the default version, had options like <a href="HHVM" title="HHVM">HHVM</a>. For older versions of PHP: Although <a href="PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a> opcodes are generated each time the program is launched, and are always interpreted and not <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compiled</a>.

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chromium.googlesource.com/external/github.com/v8/v8.wiki/+/eb80fb157da30e8c838e758f178de674e47648ed/Design-Elements.md">"Dynamic Machine Code Generation"</a>. Google Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170305155607/https://github.com/v8/v8/wiki/Design%20Elements">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-03-05. Retrieved 2024-12-01.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Jucs_Lua-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Jucs_Lua_2-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jucs.org/jucs_11_7/the_implementation_of_lua/jucs_11_7_1159_1176_defigueiredo.html">"The Implementation of Lua 5.0"</a>.</cite> (NB. This involves a register-based virtual machine.)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Dalvik-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Dalvik_3-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518021154/http://source.android.com/tech/dalvik/dalvik-bytecode.html">"Dalvik VM"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://source.android.com/tech/dalvik/dalvik-bytecode.html">the original</a> on 2013-05-18. Retrieved 2012-10-29.</cite> (NB. This VM is register based.)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Byte_Machine-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Byte_Machine_4-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allaboutcomputing.net/2014/07/byte-code-vs-machine-code.html">"Byte Code Vs Machine Code"</a>. www.allaboutcomputing.net. Retrieved 2017-10-23.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFO’Phinney" class="citation web cs1">O’Phinney, Matthew Weier. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zend.com/blog/exploring-new-php-jit-compiler">"Exploring the New PHP JIT Compiler"</a>. Zend by Perforce. Retrieved 2021-02-19.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stitcher.io/blog/php-jit">"PHP 8: The JIT - stitcher.io"</a>. stitcher.io. Retrieved 2021-02-19.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Loitsch_Bytecode-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Loitsch_Bytecode_8-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLoitsch" class="citation web cs1">Loitsch, Florian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130512215811/http://www.dartlang.org/articles/why-not-bytecode/">"Why Not a Bytecode VM?"</a>. <a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dartlang.org/articles/why-not-bytecode/">the original</a> on 2013-05-12.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Javascript-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Javascript_9-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2ality.com/2012/01/bytecode-myth.html">"JavaScript myth: JavaScript needs a standard bytecode"</a>. 2ality.com.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFG.2022" class="citation web cs1">G., Adam Y. (2022-07-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/adamyg/berkeley_pascal">"Berkeley Pascal"</a>. <a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a>. Retrieved 2022-01-08.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lispworks.com/documentation/HyperSpec/Body/f_disass.htm">"CLHS: Function DISASSEMBLE"</a>. www.lispworks.com.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCollective2023" class="citation web cs1">Collective (2023-12-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lispcookbook.github.io/cl-cookbook/performance.html">"The Common Lisp Cookbook – Performance Tuning and Tips"</a>. lispcookbook.github.io.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Arizona_Icom-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Arizona_Icom_13-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305123148/http://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/ftp/doc/ib1up.pdf">"The Implementation of the Icon Programming Language"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/ftp/doc/ib1up.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2011-09-09.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Icon_Unicon-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Icon_Unicon_14-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unicon.sourceforge.net/book/ib.pdf">"The Implementation of Icon and Unicon a Compendium"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://unicon.sourceforge.net/book/ib.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Paul_2001_KEYBOARD-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Paul_2001_KEYBOARD_15-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPaul2001" class="citation newsgroup cs1">Paul, Matthias R. (2001-12-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/d/msg/comp.os.msdos.programmer/l_IuSHsBDWQ/887rJF9IYmMJ">"KEYBOARD.SYS internal structure"</a>. <a href="Usenet_newsgroup" title="Usenet newsgroup">Newsgroup</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="news:comp.os.msdos.programmer">comp.os.msdos.programmer</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20170909082257/https://groups.google.com/forum/%23!msg/comp.os.msdos.programmer/l_IuSHsBDWQ/887rJF9IYmMJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-09-09. Retrieved 2016-09-17. <q>[…] In fact, the format is basically the same in <a href="MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a> 3.3 - 8.0, <a href="PC_DOS" class="mw-redirect" title="PC DOS">PC DOS</a> 3.3 - 2000, including Russian, Lithuanian, Chinese and Japanese issues, as well as in Windows NT, 2000, and XP […]. There are minor differences and incompatibilities, but the general format has not changed over the years. […] Some of the data entries contain normal tables […] However, most entries contain executable code interpreted by some kind of <a href="P-code_machine" title="P-code machine">p-code interpreter</a> at *<a href="Run_time_(program_lifecycle_phase)" class="mw-redirect" title="Run time (program lifecycle phase)">runtime</a>*, including conditional branches and the like. This is why the <a href="KEYB_(DOS_command)" class="mw-redirect" title="KEYB (DOS command)">KEYB</a> driver has such a huge memory footprint compared to table-driven keyboard drivers which can be done in 3 - 4 Kb getting the same level of function except for the interpreter. […]</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Mendelson_2001_KEYBOARD-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Mendelson_2001_KEYBOARD_16-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMendelson2001" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Edward_Mendelson" title="Edward Mendelson">Mendelson, Edward</a> (2001-07-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~em36/wpdos/eurodos.html">"How to Display the Euro in MS-DOS and Windows DOS"</a>. Display the euro symbol in full-screen MS-DOS (including Windows 95 or Windows 98 full-screen DOS). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160917201248/http://www.columbia.edu/~em36/wpdos/eurodos.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-09-17. Retrieved 2016-09-17. <q>[…] Matthias [R.] Paul […] warns that the <a href="IBM_PC_DOS" title="IBM PC DOS">IBM PC DOS</a> version of the keyboard driver uses some internal procedures that are not recognized by the <a href="Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> driver, so, if possible, you should use the <a href="IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> versions of both <a href="KEYB.COM" class="mw-redirect" title="KEYB.COM">KEYB.COM</a> and <a href="KEYBOARD.SYS" class="mw-redirect" title="KEYBOARD.SYS">KEYBOARD.SYS</a> instead of mixing Microsoft and IBM versions […]</q></cite> (NB. What is meant by "procedures" here are some additional bytecodes in the IBM KEYBOARD.SYS file not supported by the Microsoft version of the KEYB driver.)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Patent_6973644-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Patent_6973644_17-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170305001731/http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=6973644.PN.&OS=PN/6973644&RS=PN/6973644">"United States Patent 6,973,644"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=6973644.PN.&OS=PN/6973644&RS=PN/6973644">the original</a> on 2017-03-05. Retrieved 2009-05-21.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Multiplan-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Multiplan_18-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1">Microsoft C Pcode Specifications. p. 13. <q><a href="Multiplan" title="Multiplan">Multiplan</a> wasn't compiled to <a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a>, but to a kind of byte-code which was run by an <a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>, in order to make Multiplan portable across the widely varying hardware of the time. This byte-code distinguished between the machine-specific <a href="Floating_point_format" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point format">floating point format</a> to calculate on, and an external (standard) format, which was <a href="Binary-coded_decimal" title="Binary-coded decimal">binary coded decimal</a> (BCD). The PACK and UNPACK instructions converted between the two.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-cran_r-19"><a href="#cite_ref-cran_r_19-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cran.r-project.org/doc/manuals/R-admin.html#Byte_002dcompiler">"R Installation and Administration"</a>. cran.r-project.org.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-SQLite-20"><a href="#cite_ref-SQLite_20-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170414044139/http://sqlite.org/opcode.html">"The SQLite Bytecode Engine"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sqlite.org/opcode.html">the original</a> on 2017-04-14. Retrieved 2016-08-29.</cite>

</li>

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